![]() ![]() Accordingly, these robots are becoming one of the emerging contrivances for biomedical applications, attaining their position as the next potential paradigm changer in minimally invasive medicine 3 (e.g., microsurgeries 4 as well as detection, manipulation, assembly, and isolation of objects 5, 6), targeted cell/drug deliveries 7– 10, and maneuverable navigation in viscous mediums 11 (e.g., biological fluids such as blood) for imaging/scanning purposes 12– 17.īy definition, 3D printers produce objects in a layer-by-layer manner based on a computer-aided design (CAD) 18– 22. While novel additive manufacturing methods (i.e., three-dimensional (3D) printing techniques) are surpassing size-related limitations, the functionalities of these robots have advanced owing to the use of smart materials (i.e., materials designed to respond to a certain condition such as specific pH or protein level), more accurate actuation techniques (i.e., on- and off-board methods), and integration with physical intelligence (PI) as well as artificial intelligence (AI). The emerging science of machines and robots fabricated on the scale of micro- and nano-meters (micro- and nano-robots) has advanced immensely in the last decade 1, 2. Moreover, in order to facilitate bench-to-bedside translation of microrobots, current challenges impeding clinical translation of microrobots are elaborated, including entry obstacles (e.g., immune system attacks) and cumbersome standard test procedures to ensure biocompatibility. In addition, as a future perspective, we discussed the potential advantages of integration of microrobots with smart materials, and conceivable benefits of implementation of artificial intelligence (AI), as well as physical intelligence (PI). Here, the latest end applications of 3D printed microrobots are reviewed (ranging from environmental to biomedical applications) along with a brief discussion over the feasible actuation methods (e.g., on- and off-board), and practical 3D printing technologies for microrobot fabrication. Besides, recent advancements of three-dimensional (3D) printers have enabled the high-resolution fabrication of microrobots with a faster design-production turnaround time for users with limited micromanufacturing skills. In addition, microrobots have found applications in the environmental sector (e.g., water treatment). Microrobots can be precisely actuated and maneuvered individually or in a swarm for cargo delivery, sampling, surgery, and imaging applications. Microrobots have attracted the attention of scientists owing to their unique features to accomplish tasks in hard-to-reach sites in the human body. ![]()
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